Which of the Following Statements Is True About the Literature Review?

• Journal List
• Nature Public Health Emergency Drove
• PMC7134234

Responsible Pattern, Implementation and Apply of Information and Communication Engineering. 2020 Mar 10; 12067: 235–246.

The Utilise of Critical Thinking to Place Imitation News: A Systematic Literature Review

Guest Editor (south): Marié Hattingh,^viii Machdel Matthee,⁹ Hanlie Smuts,^x Ilias Pappas,¹¹ Yogesh K. Dwivedi,¹² and Matti Mäntymäki¹³

⁸Academy of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

⁹University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

^tenUniversity of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

¹¹University of Agder, Kristiansand, Norway

¹²Swansea Academy, Swansea, Uk

¹³University of Turku, Turku, Republic of finland

Paul Machete

Department of Informatics, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0001 S Africa

Marita Turpin

Department of Information science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0001 Southward Africa

Abstract

With the large amount of news currently being published online, the ability to evaluate the credibility of online news has become essential. While there are many studies involving false news and tools on how to detect it, there is a express corporeality of work that focuses on the utilise of information literacy to assist people to critically access online data and news. Critical thinking, as a class of information literacy, provides a means to critically engage with online content, for example by looking for bear witness to back up claims and by evaluating the plausibility of arguments. The purpose of this study is to investigate the current state of noesis on the employ of critical thinking to identify false news. A systematic literature review (SLR) has been performed to identify previous studies on evaluating the credibility of news, and in particular to see what has been washed in terms of the employ of critical thinking to evaluate online news. During the SLR'due south sifting process, 22 relevant studies were identified. Although some of these studies referred to information literacy, only iii explicitly dealt with critical thinking as a means to identify fake news. The studies on disquisitional thinking noted critical thinking as an essential skill for identifying faux news. The recommendation of these studies was that data literacy be included in academic institutions, specifically to encourage critical thinking.

Keywords: Disquisitional thinking, Simulated news, Information literacy, Systematic literature review

Introduction

The information age has brought a pregnant increase in available sources of information; this is in line with the unparalleled increase in internet availability and connection, in addition to the accessibility of technological devices [i]. People no longer rely on television and print media alone for obtaining news, merely increasingly make use of social media and news apps. The variety of information sources that nosotros have today has contributed to the spread of alternative facts [i]. With over 1.8 billion active users per calendar month in 2016 [2], Facebook accounted for 20% of total traffic to reliable websites and up to l% of all the traffic to imitation news sites [3]. Twitter comes second to Facebook, with over 400 million active users per calendar month [two]. Posts on social media platforms such as Facebook and Twitter spread speedily due to how they attempt to grab the readers' attention every bit chop-chop every bit possible, with little substantive information provided, and thus create a breeding ground for the dissemination of imitation news [iv].

While social media is a convenient way of accessing news and staying connected to friends and family unit, it is not piece of cake to distinguish real news from simulated news on social media [5]. Social media continues to contribute to the increasing distribution of user-generated information; this includes hoaxes, fake claims, made news and conspiracy theories, with primary sources being social media platforms such every bit Facebook and Twitter [half dozen]. This means that whatsoever person who is in possession of a device, which tin can connect to the net, is potentially a consumer or distributor of fake news. While social media platforms and search engines do not encourage people to believe the information being circulated, they are complicit in people'south propensity to believe the data they come beyond on these platforms, without determining their validity [6]. The spread of fake news can cause a multitude of damages to the field of study; varying from reputational damage of an private, to having an result on the perceived value of a company [7].

The purpose of this study is to investigate the apply of critical thinking methods to detect news stories that are untrue or otherwise help to develop a critical attitude to online news. This piece of work was performed by ways of a systematic literature review (SLR). The paper is presented as follows. The next department provides groundwork information on imitation news, its importance in the day-to-twenty-four hours lives of social media users and how information literacy and disquisitional thinking can be used to identify imitation news. Thereafter, the SLR research approach is discussed. Following this, the findings of the review are reported, kickoff in terms of descriptive statistics and the in terms of a thematic assay of the identified studies. The paper ends with the Conclusion and recommendations.

Groundwork: Faux News, Information Literacy and Critical Thinking

This section discusses the history of fake news, the imitation news that we know today and the role of information literacy can exist used to assistance with the identification of fake news. Information technology also provides a brief definition of critical thinking.

The History of Fake News

Although faux news has received increased attention recently, the term has been used past scholars for many years [4]. Fake news emerged from the tradition of yellow journalism of the 1890s, which can exist described as a reliance on the familiar aspects of sensationalism—criminal offence news, scandal and gossip, divorces and sexual activity, and stress upon the reporting of disasters, sports sensationalism every bit well as possibly satirical news [5]. The emergence of online news in the early 2000s raised concerns, among them being that people who share similar ideologies may form "repeat chambers" where they tin can filter out alternative ideas [2]. This emergence came about as news media transformed from one that was dominated past newspapers printed by authentic and trusted journalists to ane where online news from an untrusted source is believed by many [five]. The term later grew to describe "satirical news shows", "parody news shows" or "simulated-news comedy shows" where a television bear witness, or segment on a television show was dedicated to political satire [4]. Some of these include pop television shows such every bit The Daily Bear witness (now with Trevor Noah), Saturday Night Live's "The Weekend Update" segment, and other similar shows such as Concluding Calendar week Tonight with John Oliver and The Colbert Study with Stephen Colbert [four]. News stories in these shows were labelled "fake" not considering of their content, but for parodying network news for the utilize of sarcasm, and using comedy as a tool to engage existent public problems [iv]. The term "Fake News" further became prominent during the class of the 2016 Usa presidential elections, as members of the opposing parties would post incorrect news headlines in order to sway the decision of voters [6].

Simulated News Today

The term fake news has a more literal meaning today [four]. The Macquarie Dictionary named fake news the give-and-take of the year for 2016 [8]. In this dictionary, simulated news is described it as a word that captures a fascinating evolution in the creation of deceiving content, also allowing people to believe what they see fit. There are many definitions for the phrase, however, a concise clarification of the term tin be found in Paskin [four] who states that sure news manufactures originating from either social media or mainstream (online or offline) platforms, that are not factual, but are presented every bit such and are non satirical, are considered fake news. In some instances, editorials, reports, and exposés may be knowingly disseminating information with intent to deceive for the purposes of budgetary or political do good [four].

A distinction amongst 3 types of false news can be made on a conceptual level, namely: serious fabrications, hoaxes and satire [3]. Serious fabrications are explained as news items written on faux data, including celebrity gossip. Hoaxes refer to false information provided via social media, aiming to exist syndicated past traditional news platforms. Lastly, satire refers to the utilize of sense of humour in the news to imitate existent news, but through irony and absurdity. Some examples of famous satirical news platforms in circulation in the modernistic day are The Onion and The Beaverton, when contrasted with real news publishers such as The New York Times [3].

Although there are many studies involving imitation news and tools on how to detect it, there is a express amount of academic work that focuses on the need to encourage information literacy then that people are able to critically access the information they have been presented, in order to make amend informed decisions [9].

Stein-Smith [five] urges that information/media literacy has go a more than critical skill since the appearance of the notion of imitation news has go public conversation. Information literacy is no longer a nice-to-have proficiency but a requirement for interpreting news headlines and participation in public discussions. It is essential for academic institutions of higher learning to present data literacy courses that volition empower students and staff members with the prerequisite tools to place, select, sympathize and use trustworthy information [one]. Exterior of its academic uses, data literacy is also a lifelong skill with multiple applications in everyday life [v]. The choices people make in their lives, and opinions they class need to be informed by the appropriate interpretation of right, opportune, and significant information [v].

Disquisitional Thinking

Critical thinking covers a broad range of skills that includes the following: verbal reasoning skills; argument analysis; thinking as hypothesis testing; dealing with likelihood and uncertainties; and decision making and problem solving skills [ten]. For the purpose of this study, where nosotros are concerned with the evaluation of the credibility of online news, the following definition volition be used: critical thinking is "the ability to analyse and evaluate arguments according to their soundness and brownie, respond to arguments and achieve conclusions through deduction from given information" [11]. In this study, we desire to investigate how the skills mentioned past [11] tin be used as function of information literacy, to better place simulated news.

The next department presents the inquiry approach that was followed to perform the SLR.

Enquiry Method

This section addresses the research question, the search terms that were practical to a database in relation to the research question, besides as the search criteria used on the search results. The following enquiry question was addressed in this SLR:

• What is the part of critical thinking in identifying fake news, according to previous studies?

The research question was identified in accord to the research topic. The intention of the research question is to make up one's mind if the identified studies in this review provide insights into the use of disquisitional thinking to evaluate the credibility of online news and in item to place fake news.

Delimitations.

In the structure of this SLR, the following definitions of fake news and other related terms have been excluded, post-obit the suggestion of [2]:

• Unintentional reporting mistakes;

• Rumours that do non originate from a particular news article;

• Conspiracy theories;

• Satire that is unlikely to be misconstrued as factual;

• Faux statements by politicians; and

• Reports that are slanted or misleading, but not outright false.

Search Terms.

The database tool used to extract sources to bear the SLR was Google Scholar (https://scholar.google.com). The process for extracting the sources involved executing the search string on Google Scholar and the retrieval of the articles and their meta-information into a tool called Mendeley, which was used for reference management.

The search string used to call back the sources was divers beneath:

("critical think*" OR "critically (NEAR/2) reason*" OR "critical (NEAR/2) idea*" OR "critical (Well-nigh/2) judge*" AND "fake news" AND (identify* OR analyse* OR discover* OR describe* OR review).

To construct the search criteria, the post-obit factors have been taken into consideration: the research topic guided the search string, equally the key words were used to create the base search criteria. The 2nd step was to construct the search string according to the search engine requirements on Google Scholar.

Selection Criteria.

The pick criteria outlined the rules practical in the SLR to identify sources, narrow down the search criteria and focus the study on a specific topic. The inclusion and exclusion criteria are outlined in Tablei to evidence which filters were applied to remove irrelevant sources.

Table one.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria for paper choice

Inclusion criteria	Exclusion criteria
Publications related to alternative facts, simulated news and fabrications	Publications related to culling facts, fake news and fabrications
Academic journals published in it and related fields	Academic journals published in it and related fields
Academic journals should outline critical thinking, techniques of how to identify imitation news or reviewing fake news using disquisitional thinking	Bookish journals should outline disquisitional thinking, techniques of how to place fake news or reviewing faux news using disquisitional thinking
Academic journals should include an abstruse	Academic journals should include an abstract
	Publications related to alternative facts, faux news and fabrications

Source Selection.

The search criteria were practical on the online database and 91 papers were retrieved. The criteria in Table1 were used on the search results in order to narrow downwardly the results to appropriate papers only.

PRISMA Flowchart.

The option criteria included four stages of filtering and this is depicted in Fig.1. In then Identification phase, the 91 search results from Google Scholar were returned and 3 sources were derived from the sources already identified from the search results, making a total of 94 available sources. In the screening stage, no duplicates were identified. After a thorough screening of the search results, which included looking at the availability of the article (complimentary to use), 39 in full records were available – to which 55 manufactures were excluded. Of the 39 articles, ix were excluded based on their titles and abstruse beingness irrelevant to the topic in the eligibility phase. A terminal list of 22 articles was included every bit part of this SLR. As grooming for the information analysis, a data extraction table was fabricated that classified each article co-ordinate to the following: article author; article title; theme (a brusk summary of the article); twelvemonth; country; and type of publication. The data extraction table assisted in the analysis of findings as presented in the next section.

Analysis of Findings

Descriptive Statistics

Due to the limited number of relevant studies, the information search did not have a specified start engagement. Manufactures were included up to 31 August 2019. The bulk of the papers found were published in 2017 (eight papers) and 2018 (9 papers). This is in line with the term "false news" being appear the word of the year in the 2016 [8].

The selected papers were classified into themes. Figure2 is a Venn diagram that represents the overlap of articles by themes across the review. Manufactures that fall under the "false news" theme had the highest number of occurrences, with 11 in total. Three articles focused mainly on "Disquisitional Thinking", and "Information Literacy" was the main focus of four articles. Two articles combined all three topics of critical thinking, information literacy, and simulated news.

Venn diagram depicting the overlap of articles past main focus

An analysis of the number of manufactures published per country indicate that the U.s.a. had a dominating amount of articles published on this topic, a total of 17 articles - this represents 74% of the selected articles in this review. The remaining countries where articles were published are Australia, Deutschland, Ireland, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, and Sweden - with each having one commodity published.

In terms of publication type, 15 of the articles were journal articles, four were reports, 1 was a thesis, i was a magazine commodity and ane, a web page.

Discussion of Themes

The following emerged from a thematic analysis of the articles.

Fake News

False News and Accountability.

With the influence that social media has on the bulldoze of fake news [2], who then becomes responsible for the dissemination and intake of simulated news past the full general population? The immediate assumption is that in the digital historic period, social media platforms like Facebook and Twitter should be able to curate information, or do some form of fact-checking when posts are uploaded onto their platforms [12], but that leans closely to infringing on liberty of speech. While unlike authors agree that there need to be measures in place for the minimisation of fake news beingness spread [12, 13], where that accountability lies differs between the authors. Metaxas and Mustafaraj [13] aimed to develop algorithms or plug-ins that can assistance in trust and postulated that consumers should be able to identify misinformation, thus making an informed decision on whether to share that information or non. Lazer et al. [12] on the other manus, believe the onus should exist on the platform owners to put restrictions on the kind of data distributed. Considering that the work by Metaxas and Mustafaraj [xiii] was washed 7 years ago, one tin conclude that the use of fact-checking algorithms/plug-ins has not been successful in curbing the propulsion of fake news.

Faux News and Student Research.

There were a total of 4 articles that had a focus on student research in relation to fake news. Harris, Paskin and Stein-Smith [4, v, 14] all agree that students do non have the power to discern between real and fake news. A Stanford History Teaching Group study reveals that students are non geared up for distinguishing real from false news [4]. Most students are able to perform a elementary Google search for information; however, they are unable to identify the author of an online source, or if the information is misleading [14]. Furthermore, students are not aware of the benefits of learning data literacy in schoolhouse in equipping them with the skills required to accurately place fake news [5]. At the Metropolitan Campus of Fairleigh Dickson University, librarians have undertaken the role of providing grooming on information literacy skills for identifying faux news [5].

Faux News and Social Media.

A number of authors [6, xv] are in agreement that social media, the leading source of news, is the biggest driving force for simulated news. It provides substantial reward to broadcast manipulated information. Information technology is an open platform of unfiltered editors and open to contributions from all. According to Nielsen and Graves as well equally Janetzko, [half-dozen, 15], people are unable to identify fake news correctly. They are likely to associate fake news with low quality journalism than false information designed to mislead. Two manufactures, [15] and [half dozen] discussed the role of disquisitional thinking when interacting on social media. Social media presents data to us that has been filtered according to what we already consume, thereby making information technology a challenge for consumers to think critically. The report by Nielsen and Graves [6] confirm that students' failure to verify incorrect online sources requires urgent attention as this could indicate that students are a uncomplicated target for presenting manipulated information.

Imitation News That Drive Politics.

Ii studies mention the outcome of social and the spread of fake news, and how information technology may have propelled Donald Trump to win the U.s.a. election in 2016 [two, 16]. Too, [viii] and [2] mention how a story on the Pope supporting Trump in his presidential campaign, was widely shared (more than than a 1000000 times) on Facebook in 2016. These articles likewise indicate out how in the information age, fact-checking has get relatively like shooting fish in a barrel, but people are more likely to trust their intuition on news stories they consume, rather than checking the reliability of a story. The use of paid trolls and Russian bots to populate social media feeds with misinformation in an try to swing the United states of america presidential election in Donald Trump'due south favour, is highlighted [16]. The creation of fake news, with the utilise of alarmist headlines ("click bait"), generates huge traffic into the original websites, which drives up advertising revenue [2]. This means content creators are compelled to create imitation news, to drive advert revenue on their websites - even though they may not exist believe in the fake news themselves [2].

Information Literacy.

Data literacy is when a person has access to information, and thus can process the parts they need, and create ways in which to best use the information [1]. Teaching students the importance of information literacy skills is central, not only for identifying faux news but besides for navigating life aspects that require managing and scrutinising information, as discussed past [1, 17], and [9]. Courtney [17] highlights how journalism students, in a higher place students from other disciplines, may need to have some form of information literacy incorporated into their syllabi to increase their awareness of fake news stories, creating a narrative of beingness objective and reliable news creators. Courtney assessed dissimilar universities that teach journalism and media-related studies, and established that students mostly lack awareness on how useful library services are in offering services related to data literacy. Courtney [17] and Rose-Wiles [9] discuss how the utilise of library resource should be normalised to students. With millennials and generation Z having social media every bit their commencement point of contact, Rose-Wiles [9] urges universities, colleges and other bookish research institutes to promote the utilise of more than library resources than those from the internet, to encourage students to lean on reliable sources. Overall, this may prove hard, therefore Rose-Wiles [nine] proposes that past teaching information literacy skills and critical thinking, students tin use these skills to use in any situation or information source.

Referred to as "truth decay", people have reached a betoken where they no longer demand to agree with facts [18]. Due to political polarisation, the general public hold the opinion of being office of an oppressed grouping of people, and therefore will believe a political leader who appeals to that narrative [xviii]. There needs to be tangible activeness put into driving civil appointment, to encourage people to call up critically, analyse information and not believe everything they read.

Disquisitional Thinking.

Only three of the articles had critical thinking as a main theme. Bronstein et al. [xix] hash out how certain dogmatic and religious behavior create a tendency in individuals to belief whatsoever information given, without them having a need to interrogate the information further and and then deciding ion its veracity. The article farther elaborates how these individuals are also more probable to engage in conspiracy theories, and tend to rationalise absurd events. Bronstein et al.'s [19] study conclude that dogmatism and religious fundamentalism highly correlate with a conventionalities in fake news. Their study [19] suggests the apply of interventions that aim to increase open-minded thinking, and also increment analytical thinking every bit a way to help religious, curb conventionalities in imitation news. Howlett [xx] describes disquisitional thinking every bit evidence-based exercise, which is taking the theories of the skills and concepts of disquisitional thinking and converting those for employ in everyday applications. Jackson [21] explains how the internet purposely prides itself in being a platform for "unreviewed content", due to the idea that people may not run across said content again, therefore it needs to be attention-grabbing for this moment, and not necessarily accurate. Jackson [21] expands that social media affected critical thinking in how it changed the view on published data, what is now seen every bit former forms of data media. This then presents a claiming to critical thinking in that a large portion of information institute on the cyberspace is non merely unreliable, it may also be simulated. Jackson [21] posits that one of the biggest dangers to critical thinking may exist that people take a sense of perceived power for being able to detect the others they seek with a elementary spider web search. People are no longer interested in evaluation the credibility of the data they receive and share, and thus leading to the propagation of fake news [21].

Discussion of Findings

The aggregated data in this review has provided insight into how fake news is perceived, the level of attention it is receiving and the shortcomings of people when identifying fake news. Since the increase in awareness of simulated news in 2016, in that location has been an increment in academic focus on the bailiwick, with virtually of the articles published between 2017 and 2018. Fifty percentage of the manufactures released focused on the bailiwick of imitation news, with 18% reflecting on information literacy, and simply 13% on critical thinking.

The thematic discussion grouped and synthesised the manufactures in this review co-ordinate to the main themes of false news, information literacy and critical thinking. The Fake news and accountability discussion raised the question of who becomes answerable for the spreading of faux news betwixt social media and the user. The articles presented a conclusion that fact-checking algorithms are not successful in reducing the dissemination of imitation news. The word as well included a focus on fake news and student inquiry, whereby a Stanford History Education Grouping written report revealed that students are not well educated in thinking critically and identifying real from false news [4]. The Fake news and social media discussion provided insight on social media is the leading source of news also as a contributor to fake news. It provides a challenge for consumers who are not able to call up critically nigh online news, or have basic information literacy skills that tin can aid in identifying false news. Fake news that drive politics highlighted fake news' role in politics, especially the 2016 United states of america presidential elections and the influence it had on the voters [22].

Data literacy related publications highlighted the need for educating the public on being able to identify imitation news, as well as the benefits of having information literacy as a life skill [1, 9, 17]. It was shown that students are often misinformed nearly the potential benefits of library services. The authors suggested that university libraries should become more recognised and involved as office-players in providing and assisting with information literacy skills.

The manufactures that focused on disquisitional thinking pointed out two areas where a lack of critical thinking prevented readers from discerning between authentic and fake information. In the 1 instance, it was shown that people's confidence in their power to detect information online gave fabricated them overly confident virtually the accuracy of that information [21]. In the other case, it was shown that dogmatism and religious fundamentalism, which led people to believe certain false news, were associated with a lack of critical thinking and a questioning mind-set [21].

The articles that focused on information literacy and critical thinking were in agreement on the value of promoting and instruction these skills, in detail to the academy students who were often the subjects of the studies performed.

Conclusion

This review identified 22 articles that were synthesised and used as show to determine the role of disquisitional thinking in identifying simulated news. The articles were classified co-ordinate to year of publication, country of publication, type of publication and theme. Based on the descriptive statistics, false news has been a growing trend in recent years, predominantly in the US since the presidential election in 2016. The research presented in about of the articles was aimed at the cess of students' ability to place fake news. The diverse studies were consistent in their findings of research subjects' lack of ability to distinguish between true and faux news.

Data literacy emerged every bit a new theme from the studies, with Rose-Wiles [9] advising academic institutions to teach data literacy and encourage students to think critically when accessing online news. The potential role of university libraries to assist in not merely education information literacy, but also assisting student to evaluate the brownie of online information, was highlighted. The iii articles that explicitly dealt with critical thinking, all found critical thinking to exist lacking among their research subjects. They further indicated how this lack of disquisitional thinking could be linked to people'south inability to identify fake news.

This review has pointed out people's full general disability to place imitation news. It highlighted the importance of information literacy equally well as critical thinking, as essential skills to evaluate the credibility of online information.

The limitations in this review include the use of students as the main participants in about of the inquiry - this would betoken a need to shift the academic focus towards having the general public equally participants. This is imperative considering anyone who possesses a mobile device is potentially a contributor or benefactor of fake news.

For future inquiry, it is suggested that the value of the formal educational activity of information literacy at universities be farther investigated, every bit a ways to assist students in assessing the credibility of online news. Given the very limited number of studies on the function of disquisitional thinking to identify false news, this is as well an important area for further research.

Contributor Information

Marié Hattingh, Email: az.ca.pu@hgnittah.eiram.

Machdel Matthee, Email: az.ca.pu@eehttam.ledhcam.

Hanlie Smuts, Email: az.ca.pu@stums.eilnah.

Ilias Pappas, Email: on.aiu@sappap.saili.

Yogesh K. Dwivedi, Email: moc.liamg@ideviwdky.

Matti Mäntymäki, Email: if.utu@ikamytnam.ittam.

References

one. Taala W, Franco FB, Jr, Teresa PHS. Library literacy program: library every bit battleground for fighting fakenews. Open Access Libr. J. 2019;6:e5296. [Google Scholar]

2. Allcott H, Gentzkow One thousand. Social media and fake news in the 2016 election. J. Econ. Perspect. 2017;31(2):211–236. [Google Scholar]

3. Pérez-Rosas, 5., Kleinberg, B., Lefevre, A., Mihalcea, R.: Automatic detection of fake news, arXiv preprint arXiv:1708.07104 (2017)

4. Paskin D. Real or fake news: who knows? J. Soc. Media Soc. 2018;7(2):252–273. [Google Scholar]

5. Stein-Smith, Chiliad.: Librarians, data literacy, and fake news. Strateg. Libr. 37, i–4 (2017)

vii. Vosoughi Due south, Roy D, Aral S. The spread of truthful and false news online. Science. 2018;359(6380):1146–1151. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

9. Rose-Wiles LM. Reflections on fake news, librarians, and undergraduate research. Ref. User Serv. Q. 2018;57(3):200–204. [Google Scholar]

x. Halpern DF. Instruction critical thinking for transfer across domains: disposition, skills, construction training, and metacognitive monitoring. Am. Psychol. 1998;53(4):449. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

11. Tiruneh DT, Verburgh A, Elen J. Effectiveness of critical thinking educational activity in higher education: a systematic review of intervention studies. High. Educ. Stud. 2014;4(1):ane–17. [Google Scholar]

12. Lazer DM, et al. The science of fake news. Science. 2018;359(6380):1094–1096. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

thirteen. Metaxas, P.T., Mustafaraj, E.: Trails of trustworthiness in existent-time streams (extended summary) (2012)

fourteen. Harris, F.J.: CIPA/Internet filtering. In: The International Encyclopedia of Media Literacy, pp. 1–eleven (2019)

fifteen. Janetzko, D.: Social bots and faux news as (non) seen from the viewpoint of digital education frameworks. MedienPädagogik: Zeitschrift für Theorie und Praxis der Medienbildung, pp. 61–80 (2017)

sixteen. Bodine-Baron E, Helmus TC, Radin A, Treyger E. Countering Russian Social Media Influence. Santa Monica: RAND Corporation; 2018. [Google Scholar]

17. Courtney, I.: In an era of fake news, information literacy has a role to play in journalism education in Ireland. Dublin Business School (2017)

xix. Bronstein MV, Pennycook G, Bear A, Rand DG, Cannon TD. Belief in faux news is associated with delusionality, dogmatism, religious fundamentalism, and reduced analytic thinking. J. Appl. Res. Mem. Cogn. 2019;8(1):108–117. [Google Scholar]

twenty. Howlett, B.: What testify-based practice is and why it matters. In: Testify-Based Exercise for Health Professionals: An Interprofessional Approach, pp. v–xxx (2014)

21. Jackson, S.: How a Disquisitional Thinker Uses the Web, Windsor Studies in Argumentation (2019)

22. Koulolias, V., Jonathan, G.M., Fernandez, Thousand., Sotirchos, D.: Combating Misinformation: An ecosystem in co-creation. OECD Publishing (2018)

bennettthadfur.blogspot.com

Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7134234/

Share this post